Finding May Lead to New Treatments to Decrease Risk of Relapse

Scientists have identified a mechanism in the brain that helps to explain why craving for cocaine, and the risk of relapse, seems to increase in the weeks and months after drug use is stopped. The research was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), part of the National Institutes of Health.

The study1 published in the May 25 issue of the journal Nature, "reveals a novel mechanism for why cocaine craving intensifies after cessation of drug use and suggests a new target for the development of medications to decrease the risk of relapse in abstinent cocaine abusers," says NIDA Director Dr. Nora Volkow.

Exposure to environmental cues (e.g., people, places, things) previously associated with drug use can trigger drug craving, often leading to relapse. Previous NIDA-funded research using a rat model of drug craving and relapse (published in Nature in 20012Ä) has shown that the responsiveness of rats to cocaine cues progressively increases, rather than decreases, over the first 60 days after cessation of intravenous cocaine self-administration.

In the current study, also in rats, researchers demonstrate that after prolonged periods of forced abstinence from cocaine self-administration, there is an increase in the number of proteins called AMPA glutamate receptors in a brain region known as the nucleus accumbens (a brain area involved in motivation and reward). "The additional AMPA receptors increase the reactivity of the nucleus accumbens to cocaine-related environmental cues, explaining the intensified cue-induced cocaine seeking that occurs after prolonged abstinence from the drug," explains lead investigator Marina E. Wolf, Ph.D., Professor and Chair of Neuroscience at the Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science in North Chicago. "This happens not only because there are more AMPA receptors, but also because the new AMPA receptors are atypical - they are missing a particular subunit, and therefore enable stronger stimulation of the nucleus accumbens than typical AMPA receptors," adds Wolf.

When the investigators blocked these atypical receptors (termed GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors) after prolonged abstinence from cocaine, they were able to substantially decrease intensified cue-induced craving in the rat model. "The finding suggests," says Wolf, "that medications could be developed to block the atypical GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors in the nucleus accumbens, thus reducing drug craving and the risk for relapse, without interfering with neurotransmission at typical AMPA receptors, which are important for normal brain functions such as learning and memory."

The research was performed in the laboratories of Wolf, Michela Marinelli, Ph.D., and Kuei Y. Tseng, M.D., Ph.D., at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science and Yavin Shaham, Ph.D., of the NIDA Intramural Research Program in Baltimore, Maryland.

READ THIS IMPORTANT REPORT WRITTEN BY THE DIRECTOR OF NIDA. IT PRESENTS A COMPREHENSIVE PICTURE OF ADDICTION, ADDICTION TREATMENT, AND THE BRAIN


How Science Has Revolutionized the Understanding of Drug Addiction

Throughout much of the last century, scientists studying drug abuse labored in the shadows of powerful myths and misconceptions about the nature of addiction. When science began to study addictive behavior in the 1930s, people addicted to drugs were thought to be morally flawed and lacking in willpower. Those views shaped society's responses to drug abuse, treating it as a moral failing rather than a health problem, which led to an emphasis on punitive rather than preventative and therapeutic actions. Today, thanks to science, our views and our responses to drug abuse have changed dramatically. Groundbreaking discoveries about the brain have revolutionized our understanding of drug addiction, enabling us to respond effectively to the problem.

As a result of scientific research, we know that addiction is a disease that affects both brain and behavior. We have identified many of the biological and environmental factors and are beginning to search for the genetic variations that contribute to the development and progression of the disease. Scientists use this knowledge to develop effective prevention and treatment approaches that reduce the toll drug abuse takes on individuals, families, and communities.

Despite these advances, many people today do not understand why individuals become addicted to drugs or how drugs change the brain to foster compulsive drug abuse. This booklet aims to fill that knowledge gap by providing scientific information about the disease of drug addiction, including the many harmful consequences of drug abuse and the basic approaches that have been developed to prevent and treat the disease. At the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), we believe that increased understanding of the basics of addiction will empower people to make informed choices in their own lives, adopt science-based policies and programs that reduce drug abuse and addiction in their communities, and support scientific research that improves the Nation's well-being.


Why study drug abuse and addiction?

Abuse and addiction to alcohol, nicotine, and illegal substances cost Americans upwards of half a trillion dollars a year, considering their combined medical, economic, criminal, and social impact.1,2,3. Every year, abuse of illicit drugs and alcohol contributes to the death of more than 100,000 Americans, while tobacco is linked to an estimated 440,000 deaths per year.


People of all ages suffer the harmful consequences of drug abuse and addiction.

- Babies exposed to legal and illegal drugs in the womb may be born premature and underweight. This drug exposure can slow the child's intellectual development and affect behavior later in life.

- Adolescents who abuse drugs often act out, do poorly academically, and drop out of school. They are at risk of unplanned pregnancies, violence, and infectious diseases.

- Adults who abuse drugs often have problems thinking clearly, remembering, and paying attention. They often develop poor social behaviors as a result of their drug abuse, and their work performance and personal relationships suffer.

- Parents' drug abuse often means chaotic, stress-filled homes and child abuse and neglect. Such conditions harm the well-being and development of children in the home and may set the stage for drug abuse in the next generation.


How does science provide solutions for drug abuse and addiction?

Scientists study the effects that drugs have on the brain and on people's behavior. They use this information to develop programs for preventing drug abuse and for helping people recover from addiction. Further research helps transfer these ideas into practice in our communities.


What is drug addiction?

Addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It is considered a brain disease because drugs change the brain - they change its structure and how it works. These brain changes can be long lasting, and can lead to the harmful behaviors seen in people who abuse drugs.


Why do people take drugs?

In general, people begin taking drugs for a variety of reasons:

- To feel good. Most abused drugs produce intense feelings of pleasure. This initial sensation of euphoria is followed by other effects, which differ with the type of drug used. For example, with stimulants such as cocaine, the "high" is followed by feelings of power, self-confidence, and increased energy. In contrast, the euphoria caused by opiates such as heroin is followed by feelings of relaxation and satisfaction.

- To feel better. Some people who suffer from social anxiety, stress-related disorders, and depression begin abusing drugs in an attempt to lessen feelings of distress. Stress can play a major role in beginning drug use, continuing drug abuse, or relapse in patients recovering from addiction.

- To do better. The increasing pressure that some individuals feel to chemically enhance or improve their athletic or cognitive performance can similarly play a role in initial experimentation and continued drug abuse.

- Curiosity and "because others are doing it." In this respect adolescents are particularly vulnerable because of the strong influence of peer pressure; they are more likely, for example, to engage in "thrilling" and "daring" behaviors.


If taking drugs makes people feel good or better, what's the problem?

At first, people may perceive what seem to be positive effects with drug use. They also may believe that they can control their use; however, drugs can quickly take over their lives. Consider how a social drinker can become intoxicated, put himself behind a wheel and quickly turn a pleasurable activity into a tragedy for him and others. Over time, if drug use continues, pleasurable activities become less pleasurable, and drug abuse becomes necessary for abusers to simply feel "normal." Drug abusers reach a point where they seek and take drugs, despite the tremendous problems caused for themselves and their loved ones. Some individuals may start to feel the need to take higher or more frequent doses, even in the early stages of their drug use.


Is continued drug abuse a voluntary behavior?

The initial decision to take drugs is mostly voluntary. However, when drug abuse takes over, a person's ability to exert self control can become seriously impaired. Brain imaging studies from drug-addicted individuals show physical changes in areas of the brain that are critical to judgment, decision-making, learning and memory, and behavior control. Scientists believe that these changes alter the way the brain works, and may help explain the compulsive and destructive behaviors of addiction.


Why do some people become addicted to drugs, while others do not?

As with any other disease, vulnerability to addiction differs from person to person. In general, the more risk factors an individual has, the greater the chance that taking drugs will lead to abuse and addiction. "Protective" factors reduce a person's risk of developing addiction.


What factors determine if a person will become addicted?

No single factor determines whether a person will become addicted to drugs. The overall risk for addiction is impacted by the biological makeup of the individual - it can even be influenced by gender or ethnicity, his or her developmental stage, and the surrounding social environment (e.g., conditions at home, at school, and in the neighborhood).


Which biological factors increase risk of addiction?

Scientists estimate that genetic factors account for between 40 and 60 percent of a person's vulnerability to addiction, including the effects of environment on gene expression and function. Adolescents and individuals with mental disorders are at greater risk of drug abuse and addiction than the general population.


What environmental factors increase the risk of addiction?

Home and Family. The influence of the home environment is usually most important in childhood. Parents or older family members who abuse alcohol or drugs, or who engage in criminal behavior, can increase children's risks of developing their own drug problems.

Peer and School. Friends and acquaintances have the greatest influence during adolescence. Drug-abusing peers can sway even those without risk factors to try drugs for the first time. Academic failure or poor social skills can put a child further at risk for drug abuse.


What other factors increase the risk of addiction?

- Early Use. Although taking drugs at any age can lead to addiction, research shows that the earlier a person begins to use drugs the more likely they are to progress to more serious abuse. This may reflect the harmful effect that drugs can have on the developing brain; it also may result from a constellation of early biological and social vulnerability factors, including genetic susceptibility, mental illness, unstable family relationships, and exposure to physical or sexual abuse. Still, the fact remains that early use is a strong indicator of problems ahead, among them, substance abuse and addiction.

- Method of Administration. Smoking a drug or injecting it into a vein increases its addictive potential. Both smoked and injected drugs enter the brain within seconds, producing a powerful rush of pleasure. However, this intense "high" can fade within a few minutes, taking the abuser down to lower, more normal levels. It is a starkly felt contrast, and scientists believe that this low feeling drives individuals to repeated drug abuse in an attempt to recapture the high pleasurable state.


The brain continues to develop into adulthood and undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence.

One of the brain areas still maturing during adolescence is the prefrontal cortex11 - the part of the brain that enables us to assess situations, make sound decisions, and keep our emotions and desires under control. The fact that this critical part of an adolescent's brain is still a work-in-progress puts them at increased risk for poor decisions (such as trying drugs or continued abuse). Thus, introducing drugs while the brain is still developing may have profound and long-lasting consequences.


Drugs and the Brain


Introducing the Human Brain

The human brain is the most complex organ in the body. This three-pound mass of gray and white matter sits at the center of all human activity - you need it to drive a car, to enjoy a meal, to breathe, to create an artistic masterpiece, and to enjoy everyday activities. In brief, the brain regulates your basic body functions; enables you to interpret and respond to everything you experience; and shapes your thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

The brain is made up of many parts that all work together as a team. Different parts of the brain are responsible for coordinating and performing specific functions. Drugs can alter important brain areas that are necessary for life-sustaining functions and can drive the compulsive drug abuse that marks addiction. Brain areas affected by drug abuse -

- The brain stem controls basic functions critical to life, such as heart rate, breathing, and sleeping.

- The limbic system contains the brain's reward circuit - it links together a number of brain structures that control and regulate our ability to feel pleasure. Feeling pleasure motivates us to repeat behaviors such as eating - actions that are critical to our existence. The limbic system is activated when we perform these activities - and also by drugs of abuse. In addition, the limbic system is responsible for our perception of other emotions, both positive and negative, which explains the mood-altering properties of many drugs.

- The cerebral cortex is divided into areas that control specific functions. Different areas process information from our senses, enabling us to see, feel, hear, and taste. The front part of the cortex, the frontal cortex or forebrain, is the thinking center of the brain; it powers our ability to think, plan, solve problems, and make decisions.


How does the brain communicate?

The brain is a communications center consisting of billions of neurons, or nerve cells. Networks of neurons pass messages back and forth to different structures within the brain, the spinal column, and the peripheral nervous system. These nerve networks coordinate and regulate everything we feel, think, and do.


- Neuron to Neuron
Each nerve cell in the brain sends and receives messages in the form of electrical impulses. Once a cell receives and processes a message, it sends it on to other neurons.

- Neurotransmitters - The Brain's Chemical Messengers
The messages are carried between neurons by chemicals called neurotransmitters. (They transmit messages between neurons.)

- Receptors - The Brain's Chemical Receivers
The neurotransmitter attaches to a specialized site on the receiving cell called a receptor. A neurotransmitter and its receptor operate like a "key and lock," an exquisitely specific mechanism that ensures that each receptor will forward the appropriate message only after interacting with the right kind of neurotransmitter.

- Transporters - The Brain's Chemical Recyclers
Located on the cell that releases the neurotransmitter, transporters recycle these neurotransmitters (i.e., bringing them back into the cell that released them), thereby shutting off the signal between neurons.

This past week Intervention Orange County completed over twenty drug and alcohol interventions across the United States for families with members suffering from addiction. Our interventionists traveled as far as Maine, Florida, North Dakota, the Carribean, Canada and other places. We are proud to report that all of our interventions were successful and all the clients have been placed in drug and alcohol rehabs across the country. Intervention Orange County works with the top drug rehabs in the country to provide referrals for drug and alcohol treatment. We are the choice for several top drug and alcohol treatment centers across the United States. Our professionals worked day and night this past week to ensure that every family was provided the highest level of care and dignity throughout this difficult process. We congratulate our intervention team for an incredibly successful week, and for making a difference for all families suffering from chemical dependency.

Dealing with a loved one who is abusing alcohol, drugs, food, behaviors such as gambling, sex and shopping can be frustrating and painful. While we know them to be good people, their actions can hurt and cause shame in the people who love them. In most cases, the addict is unaware of how much control the substance or behavior has over them and is defensive when faced with an intervention. This is the disease of addiction, and it is a very difficult situation for friends and family who are forced to sit by and watch as the addict slowly destroys themselves and the lives of the people around them. People who are not addicts have no way of understanding. Addiction is a disease and those who are addicts are in desperate need of help. Without help they cannot and will not stop until the substance or behavior completely destroys their lives and/or kills them. There is hope however. A professional intervention carried out by friends, family and one of our intervention specialists will open the door to recovery and spare much suffering for all involved. If your loved one has an addiction problem and you would like to discuss how our experts can help, call us today. The call is toll free.

Team Intervention has recently been selected to participate in National Recovery Month as a guest speaker in the Southern California convention. Our team of family interventionists will be available to provide information on drug and alcohol interventions for families, provide information of drug and alcohol treatment and drug rehab, and answer questions about the drug and alcohol intervention process. For more information or to attend the Recovery Month activities please contact Team Interventions at 714-913-8276.

Team Interventions is now doing training and certification for interventionists in the local area. Team Interventions continues to be the leader in drug and alcohol family interventions. Team Interventions will provide training for interventions, alcohol and drug treatment facility rehabs, and teach intervention professionals how to facilitate drug and alcohol treatment interventions. We currently have been selected as the premier intervention team for several drug and alcohol treatment centers in the United States. We have a high success rate with drug and alcohol interventions. At last study, our interventions has a success rate of over 90%, as a result Team Interventions has been chosen as the preferred drug and alcohol intervention team for drug treatment centers. We currently do family interventions for southern California dug and alcohol rehabs, Orange County drug rehabs, San Diego drug rehabs, Los Angeles drug rehabs, and South Orange County drug rehabs.

If you are in need of an intervention we are one of the most affordable interventionists in Orange County. We have a great staff that is caring and helpful. We are very affordable and willing to help you financially with your interventions as we know the extreme urgency of your matter as well as the hard times economically that everyone is going through. It is a very difficult process and with the proper steps and proper care we can help you through this difficult process. We feel we are the leaders in intervention crisis with a high success rate. We understand that each intervention is different with dual diagnosis and each case has special needs. We are extremely affordable and understanding to all these needs. You can bring your pets with you, If you are married or a couple going through this together we can definately suit your needs what ever they may be.

TEHRAN (AFP) - Iran is installing vending machines in Tehran to sell cheap condoms and syringes to drug addicts to prevent the spread of AIDS and hepatitis, an official said on Wednesday.


"Five of these machines which have been made will be installed in five of Tehran city's welfare shelters for addicts," the deputy head of Iran's anti-narcotics organization, Mohammad Reza Jahani, said.

"Condoms, syringes, bandages and plasters will be easily accessible just by inserting a coin. This protects addicts from acquiring AIDS and hepatitis," he added, according to the semi-official Fars news agency.

He said that a single 500 rial (five cents) coin is required to purchase the items.

"The machines will be used for a three month trial period and if the scheme is successful then we will upgrade them and increase their distribution to other shelters," he added.

Iranian officials admit the country has a serious drug abuse problem. They normally estimate the number of regular drug users at two million in a country with a population of more than 71 million.

Iran is situated along one of the main trafficking routes for cannabis, heroin, opium and morphine produced in Afghanistan, and designer drugs have also found their way into the Iranian market in recent years.

Out of 2,500 tonnes of narcotics that enter Iran from neighbouring Afghanistan annually, some 700 tonnes are consumed in the country, officials say.

Condoms are freely available in Iranian pharmacies.

The Islamic republic in the 1990s started actively promoting contraception as it encouraged families to have just two children to prevent the country's population growth increasing further.

Iran has tried to change its approach to drug addicts by treating users as "people who need help" rather than throwing them into already overcrowded jails